30th November 2014: COP21 Begins

So here we are, the 30th November 2015 and the first day of the COP21 summit in Paris. Since the failure in Copenhagen six years ago, this could truly be a defining moment for both the climate and humanity.

Christiana Figueres opened the summit with the powerful message:

"Never before has a responsibility so great been in the hands of so few. The world is looking to you. The world is counting on you"

151 leaders are in attendance and spoke today about the importance of acting to reduce the impacts of climate change. Here are some of the key messages conveyed by some of the world's leaders on the first day:

- The Prime Minister of Tuvalu stated that the survival of this Pacific island "depends on the decisions we take here in Paris"

- Obama called for a "long-term strategy" rather than a "stop-gap solution" 

- Putin announced that Climate Change is "one of the gravest challenges that humanity is facing" and highlights the increasing economic damage it is causing 

- Angela Merkel stated that "our very future as humankind hinges on this"

- President Xi Jinping of China declared that more must be done by developed nations

- Bolivia's president holds capitalism partially responsible for climate change

- The UK's David Cameron announced that a deal is required for the "poorest and most vulnerable countries in terms of finance" and one that "transfers technology from the richest countries to the poorest countries"

And finally, earlier today ahead of COP21, the inspirational Sir David Attenborough shared a message of hope for renewable energy, particularly solar power. He stated: "the problems are there, but they can be solved". Support from someone so knowledgable and influential surely says a lot. 

Source: BBC News

Morocco's Super-Solar Farm

By 2020, Morocco will provide about half of their electricity from renewable energy and the huge new solar power development in the Sahara desert will help in achieving this. Four developments are planned, with one of these already complete and two others projected to be finished by 2017.

This is a thermal solar farm, using the sun's energy to heat a thermal liquid solution that then generates steam to move turbines. This thermal liquid solution can be used to heat sand which will retain heat for up to three hours, thus enabling electricity generation even after the sun has set.

Not only will this super-solar farm provide clean energy for over a million homes, it also provides a solution to one of solar energy's biggest problems - flexibility.

Ouarzazate Solar Farm, Morocco
Source: heli scsp

See-through Solar

There are many innovative and exciting new ideas and start-ups that are popping up with the intention of improving, invigorating and transforming the renewable energy sector. One start-up that particularly grabbed my attention was Ubiquitous Energy, a company focused on developing see-through solar sheets that have the potential for coating windows, technology screens and many other surfaces exposed to sunlight.

The possible places in which this can be installed are vast and it could revolutionise the way in which devices are charged. Although it efficiency is limited because visible light cannot be captured (as this needs to pass through to make it see-through), light at the UV and infrared ends of the spectrum are absorbed and, in time, there is the possibility of reaching 22% efficiency.

The video below gives more detail about how these see-through solar panels work:

Source: Bloomberg Business 

The Other Side of Solar

My last post was very supportive of solar power and predominately outlined the positives of this technology, however there are can also be negative environmental impacts that can result from poor planning and immature production processes.

Earlier this month, an interesting study by Hu et al. (2015) was published in Nature Climate Change, discussing the regional impacts of solar panels on local climate. The study used models to show regional temperature changes caused by solar farms in both deserts and urban areas. Different scenarios were produced, one of which looked at the effects of a vast global distribution of solar panels. The results showed a local cooling in desert areas with warming in urban areas and an overall net warming of 0.09°C. Due to the outcome of this scenario, the authors made two key points:

1.  The impact of continued fossil fuel consumption would have a far greater detrimental impact on the environment than large scale solar farms

2.  Distribution of solar panels on this scale is highly unlikely therefore a more realistic scenario was modelled with a smaller distribution of solar farms; this resulted in a net cooling of 0.04°C

Desert Solar Farm, Mojave Desert, California
Source: ZME Science

Another study by Dubey et al. (2013) also outlines three potential negative environmental impacts of photovoltaic panels.

1. Toxic chemicals are used in the production of solar cells and accidents can lead to these pollutants entering and impacting local ecosystems

2. At present, fossil fuels predominately power solar panel production therefore the production process is not currently carbon neutral

3. Due to the relatively limited production of solar technology, waste is not currently recycled as it is not yet economically viable

However, all of these issues can be addressed in time; the carbon footprint and lack of recycling can both be improved by greater deployment of this renewable technology and toxic chemical accidents can be reduced through improved regulations.

Renewable technology is usually seen as an answer to all of our environmental problems; however, as we have seen here from solar panels, there are also negative effects. As a result, continued research is imperative so that issues are highlighted, understood and addressed prior to mass deployment. My last post mentioned the rapid 'solar revolution' that is expected to take place, but in light of the studies outlined in this post, I feel that a more balanced approach is required. By ensuring that a wide variety of renewable technologies are rolled out, it will reduce dependency on one resource, meaning that if there are any unforeseen issues once large scale deployment takes place, they can be properly addressed with reduced impact on both energy demand and the environment.

The Solar Revolution?

Of all the renewable technologies, solar has grown the fastest in recent years, with current capacity 48x higher than in 2004. 2014 saw a record 40GW global growth, with the biggest markets being Japan, China and the US. Ontop of this, solar is reducing dramatically in price and this year, it became the cheapest form of electricity in Chile.

Are we about to see a solar revolution?

Many experts claim we are reaching a 'tipping point' where advances in solar technology, such as the Tesla lithium battery that allows solar energy to be stored, will result in rapid and widespread distribution of solar power. A study published earlier this year by Pinner & Rogers (2015), stated that this is the 'age of solar power' and they attribute this to four factors:

1. Regulatory support by governments, including subsidies and feed-in-tariffs

2. Decreasing costs, with prices reducing by up to 8-12% a year

3. Industrialisation; growing demand has led to production process improvements and increased competition which has resulted in cost reductions

4. Improved technology including increased efficiency (currently at about 20%) and developments in storage of solar energy

A UK Solar Farm
Source: The Green Organisation

So, how do photovoltaic panels work?

A photovoltaic panel is made up of a number of cells. These cells are created using two semi-conducting layers (usually silicon). An electric field must be established to enable this to work, which is done by making one layer positive, typically by adding boron, and the other layer negative, by adding phosphorus which adds additional electrons to the silicon.

As a result of this electric field, when a photon from sunlight knocks an electron from an atom, the electron then moves towards the bottom of the cell and is collected on metal conductive plates. From here the electrons are transferred through wires where they flow as an electrical current that can be used as a power source.

Layers of a Photovoltaic Cell
Source: pbs.org

Solar power is hugely flexible, able to power a device as small as a calculator but with the potential to power an entire city. There are continuous advances in this technology and a recent study by Jin et al. (2015), demonstrated progress in increasing efficiency of solar cells by introducing a new oxygen-based coating which enhances the amount of charge carriers, leading to a greater conversion of sunlight into electricity.

With increasing innovation in this area we are seeing rapid advances in solar technology. As well as becoming more efficient, the ability to store solar energy is now an option; as these technologies develop and reduce in price, solar power will become increasingly attractive, gaining more investment and increasing in distribution. I really do hope that the experts are right and we are about to witness this 'tipping point' into widespread installation of solar technology.

The Future of Floating Turbines

The multinational oil and gas company, Statoil, recently announced their plan to build five floating wind turbines off the Scottish coast after gaining approval from the Scottish Government.

With construction set to begin in 2016, this new wind farm will be the first of its type in the UK, consisting of five 6MW turbines capable of producing power for up to 20,000 homes.

There are currently three types of floating wind turbine. The first is the 'Blue H' turbine; a prototype of which has been in operation since 2008 and is installed off the Southern coast of Italy. The second type is the 'Hywind' turbine, which will be used for the Scottish floating wind farm; the first prototype started operating off the coast of Norway in 2009. In 2011, the third type of floating turbine came into operation, known as the 'Windfloat' turbine, the prototype is installed off the coast of Portugal.

These turbines differ from traditional offshore technology because they attach to the seabed using an anchoring system, rather than directly drilling the tower into the ocean floor.

Proposed Hywind Floating Wind Farm, Scotland
Source: Statoil

In a study published earlier this year, Rodrigues et al. (2015), outlined the benefits of floating turbines:

1. They can be placed in far deeper water than traditional turbines which can only be located in depths up to 50m; as a result, floating wind farms will be exposed to stronger and less turbulent winds than those seen near the coast. With floating turbines further away from the coastline, there will be a reduced visual impact which should decrease the controversy surrounding new proposals.

2. There are decreased environmental impacts because piling is not required for installation. As I outlined in my previous post, this was a key downside of offshore wind turbines but with floating turbines this issue could potentially be avoided in future.

3. There are far more suitable locations and these farms can be much larger in size to meet greater energy demand.

However, there are also issues involved when using floating turbines. These are mostly design related, resulting from increased wind and wave movement further out at sea. But, as we have seen with all renewable technologies, increased research and investment should reduce these problems in time.

There seems to be a strong future for floating wind turbines, with construction underway for new developments and other proposals confirmed. This summer, Japan completed work on the world's largest floating turbine of 7MW capacity, located off the Fukushima coast; the project followed on from the pilot 2MW turbine that was installed in 2013. In addition to this news, earlier this year, Portugal announced plans to build a new floating wind farm off their north coast. It will consist of four turbines with total capacity of 25MW and should be fully operational by 2018.

These are just some of the global developments of this technology and with Statoil calling the Scottish wind farm a 'pilot', hopefully more floating turbines will be seen off the UK coast in future.

Britain Downgraded

This week, the World Energy Council announced their 2015 'Energy Trilemma Index'. The report sees the UK downgraded from the highest AAA energy rating to AAB amid concerns over the country's future energy supply.

Only two nations this year received the AAA rating which were Switzerland and Sweden. Two more countries moved onto the 'negative watch list'; South Africa and the USA. They join the four nations on the list already from last year, one of which is the UK.

To create this index, 130 countries are ranked according to three key areas: Energy Security, Energy Equity and Environmental Sustainability. For Environmental Sustainability, the UK has fallen from 18th last year down to 21st this year, with Switzerland ranking highest in this category.

The Trilemma report will be sent to the UNFCCC ahead of the COP21 negotiationsSource: World Energy Council

In my previous posts, I have discussed the UK's cuts to renewable energy subsidies and new planning regulations around onshore wind farms. It appears that the lack of support for clean energy has had a significant impact on this rating. The cuts will make diversifying supply of energy more difficult and will reduce the attraction of investing in the UK's renewable energy sector.

This global recognition makes it even more apparent that greater support is required for investment in renewables in the UK in order to substantially grow this area.

Onshore or Offshore?

Whilst looking at the UK's cuts to renewable energy subsidies in my last post, I noticed that the UK's attitude to wind energy was highlighted in many articles.

This year, onshore wind energy became the cheapest form of electricity production in the UK, with 60% of wind power being produced onshore. However, despite this, gaining approval for a new onshore wind farms is difficult; a recent report by the think tank the Fabian Society (2015), showed that 6 out of 10 onshore wind farm proposals were rejected in 2014, with the rate of rejection doubling since the coalition government came into power in 2010.

In June this year, ontaining approval became even more difficult. This is because of the government's introduction of new planning rules which state that, in England, wind farms with over 50MW of installed capacity must also be approved at local authority level to ensure that local residents are supportive of the new development.

RenewableUK, the trade association representing wind power, expressed concerns about the additional delay this would cause. In September this year alone, the Department of Energy & Climate Change rejected plans for four significant wind farms to be built in Mid-Wales.

Controversial Placement of Wind Turbines in Cumbria
Source: Telegraph 

So why is offshore favoured over onshore? 

Although onshore wind farms are cheaper, offshore turbines are typically exposed to faster wind speeds and are able to be installed lower to the ground due to the difference in the turbulent air layer above the sea compared to the land. These benefits are discussed by Esteban et al. (2011), in their  paper on offshore wind power.

Another key issue with onshore turbines is wildlife mortality. Although bird mortality is associated with both onshore and offshore wind farms, onshore wind farms have the additional impact of killing large numbers of bats. A study by Berwald et al. (2008), states that over 90% of bat deaths caused by wind turbines are a result of barotrauma (damage to the lungs caused by the rapid reduction of pressure when nearing the turbines), of which mammals are more susceptible than birds.

Source: Countryside Learning

There are however, certain environmental impacts that are specific to offshore turbines. One of the greatest concerns is the noise created from pile-driving to create the foundations of the turbines. Thomsen et al. (2006), states that this noise can lead to hearing impairment and alterations in normal behaviour patterns of a number of marine species including salmon, herring, cod and dab. Another study by Bailey et al. (2010), looked at the impact of the construction of two turbines in the North-East of Scotland. Their results concluded that permanent hearing damage would have occurred in cetaceans and pinnipeds within 5m and 20m, respectively, of the pile-driving. Two other species highlighted in the study were Bottlenose Dolphins and Minke Whales whose behavioural responses would have been impacted if they were within circa 50km of the pile-driving.

The noise pollution of onshore wind farms is also of concern, but unlike offshore wind farms, the impact is primarily on residents living in the vicinity of the turbines. They create both mechanical sounds from the generators as well as noise from the movement of blades and this sound increases with wind speed.

However, the primary reason for the preference of offshore wind farms by the public is aesthetics. A study by Jones & Eiser (2010), analysed local residents opinions on a number of proposed offshore and onshore wind farm sites. They found that offshore sites were far better received with the majority giving aesthetic impact on the environment as the reason for their preference.

The public opinion of onshore wind farms is influenced heavily by visual impacts and noise pollution and with local authorities now involved in the approval process of new onshore developments (of which the local residents play a major role), this form of wind power is unlikely to expand easily. It can be presumed that offshore wind farms will receive far greater support and we are likely to see increased development in this area. One of the key benefits of offshore is the ability to build wind farms with a greater number of turbines which therefore greatly increases capacity. Although they are more expensive, the cost is likely to continue to decrease with increased investment in this area.

Although there are clearly environmental impacts of both offshore and onshore wind turbines, the number of species impacted by fossil fuel consumption will be far more significant. With advancing technology aimed at limiting the number of wildlife fatalities from wind farms, including an ultrasonic 3D whistle aimed at preventing bats from flying into turbines, the environmental impacts of wind power is likely to decrease.

I really do believe that the positives of wind power (both onshore and offshore) vastly outweigh the negatives and feel it should be fully supported by the government, the public and environmentalists.

The UK attitude ahead of COP21

This week, an article published in the Financial Times that exposed new information about the UK Government's attitude to climate change.

As a country, we have recently seen the cuts to renewable energy subsidies which has led to heavy criticism of the UK Government and their commitment to tackling climate change. Now, new research by the think-tank Overseas Development Institute has outlined more information about UK spending that will no doubt put into question their long-term environmental goals.

The research found that between 2009-2013, £5.23bn was spent on advancing energy production in developing countries; £2.2bn of this was spent on fossil fuel projects with only £1bn aimed at renewable energy schemes.

Ahead of COP 21, with nations submitting Intended Nationally Determined Contributions (INDCs) to limit their emissions, the UK should be promoting and supporting the use of sustainable energy. This week, the UNFCC announced that the INDCs would limit global temperature rise to 2.7°C and although this is far better than the 3.1°C rise that many estimated late last year, it is still significantly higher than the IPCC's suggested 'safe zone' of 2°C. This means that all nations will have to go even further to limit the severe environmental impacts that will occur with a global temperature increase above 2°C.

As a wealthy nation that has previously been at the forefront of renewable energy development, the UK's cuts to subsidies and investment in fossil fuels overseas is thoroughly discouraging. Just last month, Chief Scientist at the UN, Jacqueline McGlade, criticised the UK's cuts to subsidies, stating that it was disappointing to see "subsidies being withdrawn and the fossil fuel industry being enhanced". The UK should be one of the leaders in supporting renewable initiatives and leading the way in negotiations to reduce the projected 2.7°C down to 2°C.

It isn't all doom and gloom, however. With COP21 looming, I have seen wide coverage of Climate Change in the press. Hopefully by spreading greater awareness and making the public clear of the targets that needs to be achieved, nations will be pressured into doing more to curb their emissions. The UN Climate Change Chief, Christiana Figueres, is hopeful that COP21 will be "a moment of remarkable transformation".

Christiana Figueres on the release of the INDC report released on the 30th October
Source: UNFCC

Christiana will be writing a blog throughout the Paris Summit and if you are interested, you can follow it on the Guardian website. Like many around the world, I will certainly be keeping a keen eye out for her next post!